79
Techno-economic assessment of the
use of green hydrogen: case study in
the ceramic industry
1.- Sergio Luiz Pinto Castiñeiras-Filho, Department of Mechanical Engineering of PUC-Rio and Institute of Energy of PUC-Rio, sergiocastfh@
gmail.com, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7933-1763
2.- Guilherme Fortunato, Department of Mechanical Engineering of PUC-Rio and Institute of Energy of PUC-Rio, fortunato345@gmail.com,
https://orcid.org/0009-0001-5914-5277
3.- Sidnei Cardoso, School of Business IAG PUC-Rio, sidnei.cardoso@phd.iag.puc-rio.br, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7212-6652
4.- Luis Fernando Mendonça Frutuoso, Institute of Energy of PUC-Rio, lmendonca@puc-rio.br, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0687-5230
5.- Florian Pradelle, Department of Mechanical Engineering of PUC-Rio and Institute of Energy of PUC-Rio, pradelle@puc-rio.br, https://orcid.
org/0000-0003-4306-8083
6.- Edmar Fagundes de Almeida, Institute of Energy of PUC-Rio, edmar@puc-rio.br, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8068-2555
7.- Eloi Fernández y Fernández, Institute of Energy of PUC-Rio, eloi@puc-rio.br, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2033-197X
Sergio Luiz Pinto Castiñeiras Filho
1
, Edmar Fagundes de Almeida
2
, Guilherme Fortunato
3
,
Luis Fernando Mendonça Frutuoso
4
,Sidnei Cardoso
5
, Florian Pradelle
6
,
Eloi Fernández y Fernández
7
Recibido: 12/11/2024 y Aceptado: 4/2/2025
80
81
La industria cerámica en Brasil consume volúmenes signicativos de gas natural, generalmente para
atender procesos que requieren altas temperaturas. Así, el uso de H2 de bajo carbono se convierte en
una alternativa potencial para ser introducida en la matriz energética del sector, bajo una modalidad
de auto-generación y auto-consumo, con el n de reemplazar parcialmente el consumo de gas natural
en procesos industriales. Se realiza un modelado técnico-económico, utilizando la herramienta H2V-
IEPUC, sobre un estudio de caso realizado en colaboración con una empresa de la industria cerámica.
La escala de producción y uso de H2 se estimó con base en proyectos internacionales y tomando
como referencia los procesos industriales actualmente implementados en una fábrica. La viabilidad
del proyecto de hidrógeno verde se demuestra mediante un análisis de sensibilidad con variables
técnicas y económicas, además de presentar un escenario determinista de viabilidad. La comprensión
del estudio de caso contribuye a los subsectores de la industria al arrojar luz sobre las ventajas y
barreras relacionadas con la incorporación de H2 de bajo carbono en las operaciones, contribuyendo
a la construcción de proyectos ambiental y económicamente sostenibles.
The ceramic industry in Brazil consumes signicant volumes of natural gas, usually for attending to
processes that require high temperatures. Thus, the use of low-carbon H2 becomes a potential alternative
to be introduced into the sector’s energy matrix, under a self-generation and self-consumption modality,
in order to partially replace natural gas in industrial processes. Technical-economic modeling is carried
out, using the H2V-IEPUC tool, on a case study conducted in partnership with a ceramic industry
company. The scale of production and use of H2 were estimated based on international projects and
taking as a reference industrial processes currently implemented at a factory. The feasibility of the green
hydrogen project is demonstrated by carrying out a sensitivity analysis with technical and economic
variables, in addition to presenting a deterministic feasibility scenario. The understanding of the case
study contributes to industry subsectors by shedding light on the advantages and barriers related to
the incorporation of low-carbon H2 in operations, contributing to the construction of projects that are
environmentally and economically sustainable.
PALABRAS CLAVE: Palabras clave: hidrógeno, electrólisis, oxígeno, proceso de alta temperatura,
cerámica.
KEYWORDS: hydrogen, electrolysis, oxygen, high-temperature process, ceramic
Resumen
Abstract
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1. INTRODUCTION
The ceramic industry can be divided into two main
categories: red ceramics and white ceramics.
Red ceramics are typically associated with
large-scale structural uses in civil construction
(bricks, tiles, etc.), and are produced by using
rewood as the predominating energy source in
Brazil (EPE, 2018). White ceramics, on the other
hand, generally consist of higher-quality products
(ooring, tiles, porcelain, etc.) that serve more
specic functions and require a higher energy
intensity in manufacturing (e.g., in the drying
process). In this case, natural gas predominates in
Brazil as the main fuel along such a manufacturing
chain. Among the emerging uses of H₂, processes
involving high-temperature heat (above 400
ºC) can benet from this resource as a form of
decarbonization, presenting as a competitive
alternative to electrication (IEA, 2024; ENGIE,
2022). In this way, the energetic use of hydrogen
can help preserve existing industrial assets
and avoid the need for developing disruptive
technologies.
Green H₂, derived from water electrolysis using
renewable energy (such as hydric, solar, and
wind), is an energy source capable of serving this
class of processes as a substitute for fossil fuels.
In particular, the Brazilian electricity grid could be
suitable for green hydrogen production, since
hydropower stands out with a share of almost
60% as one of the main primary energy sources
(EPE, 2024). As long as the hydric scenario in
the country is favorable, the grid can sustain a
low-carbon intensity with reliable provision, for
example, facilitating the certication of hydrogen
in strict schemes (CCEE, 2024). Overall, the
combination of renewable electricity resources
in Brazil can allow elevated operational factors,
enabling the economic feasibility of electrolysis
projects while guaranteeing the environmental
attribute of hydrogen.
Notably, international experiences in the ceramics
industry have adopted pilot plants to use green
hydrogen. For example, a ceramic company in
Villareal, Spain, has invested in the GREENH2KER
decarbonization project, which aims to replace
50% of natural gas with green H₂ (IBERDROLA,
2021). Another recent experience that endorses
the technical feasibility of using a hydrogen-
natural gas mixture in the ceramic industry is a
project developed in Castellarano, Italy. Success
was reported for tests with fuel blends containing
7% H2 to decarbonize the operation of a kiln, and
there is an expectation to use mixtures with up to
50% H2 (IRIS, 2024).
Finally, although carbon credits tend to be the main
coproduct in economic assessments involving low-
carbon H2, the O2 coproduced in electrolysis is
usually neglected. Actually, only specic industrial
sectors (steel industry, healthcare systems in
hospitals, submarine projects) use it at relevant
scales (IEA, 2023). Dedicated O₂ production
systems tend to be costly for use in enhanced
combustion processes, and therefore combustion
is conducted commonly with air as comburent.
It is noteworthy that some studies are giving
purpose to this byproduct. Novaes et al. (2024)
evaluated a Power-to-Liquid process sourced
with green H2 to produce wax and syncrude as
main products. The revenue associated with O2
presented a share of 13% among the outputs,
being also almost four times more representative
than the selling of carbon credits. Assunção et al.
(2025) modeled the use of an electrolysis system
in order to supply H2 for fuel cell vehicles (i.e.,
ambulances) while O2 was stored for attending
to the healthcare systems in a hospital. Avoiding
the cost of buying O2 allowed a reduction of the
levelized cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) from 4.96 to
2.60 USD/kg. Finally, León et al. (2024) studied
a bolder model for a cement factory in Spain, in
which synfuels are produced by combining CO2
from ue gases and hydrogen from electrolysis;
the coproduced O2 was appraised through an
oxy-combustion applied to a calcination process.
Thus, the possibility of designating a concrete use
for O2 can promote the economic feasibility of H2
derived from water electrolysis.
83
In this context, this study aims to assess the
partial substitution of natural gas with green H₂
in the white ceramic sector, focusing on a drying
process at a concrete ceramic facility in São Paulo
state, Brazil (DELTA, 2024). A feasible substitution
level and electrolyzer capacity scale are assumed
in the simulation, as exemplied by the presented
international projects within the ceramic industry.
Variables surrounding this substitution are
evaluated with the H2V-IEPUC model (CNI, 2024).
The tool enables a sensitivity analysis useful to
track deterministic scenarios that are attractive
to industry companies, according to technical,
economic, and environmental metrics. Therefore,
this study aims to track conditioning factors that
enable the introduction of low-carbon hydrogen
in the ceramic industry, within the framework of a
Brazilian company, representing a novelty for the
literature.
Within the scope of assessing the feasibility of
using hydrogen as a fuel for ceramic processes,
the objectives of this paper are to model the
incremental cash ow and the net present value
(NPV) of the substitution project, within the
Brazilian company technic-economic framework;
to quantify the main partakes in the cost of green
hydrogen in the levelized cost metric (LCOH) as
well as revenues associated to coproducts (CO2
credits and O2); and consider a sensitivity analysis
on NPV with the CAPEX and electricity cost,
identied as key parameters to be combined for
the sake of the project’s feasibility. The modeling
and planning of partial substitution of natural gas
in a dedicated branch of the factory allow the
industrial player to kick o an initial pilot phase,
enabling the introduction of green H₂ in the energy
matrix. This means the adoption of a project with
a low technical risk, such as intermediate product
drying. Depending on the internal experience
gained and the technical-operational success in
the H₂ usage, the player could expand the system
rationally, either by safely increasing the natural gas
substitution in existing processes or by extending
the H₂ use to other processes within the factory.
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2. METHODS
The ceramic-industry player facilities are located
in Rio Claro, in São Paulo’s interior, Brazil (Figure
1), contributing to the municipality’s status as the
largest ceramics production center in the Americas
and representing a signicant production scale
globally. This allowed the study case to consider
meaningful production scale magnitudes within
The factory has a dedicated natural gas line
supplying six dryers, each consuming an average of
3,450 Nm³/d of natural gas. An electrolysis system
was sized to replace 15% of the fossil fuel. Given
an annual factory operation of 8,000 hours (91.3%
operational factor), the current annual consumption
of 6.9 million m³ of natural gas could be reduced
to 5.8 million m³/yr with the use of H₂ (317 tons of
H₂ per year) generated by a 2.5 MW electrolyzer
(ENZE CUMMINS, 2023). The simulation of physical
and cash ows and the economic analysis for the
fuel replacement project were conducted using the
H2V-IEPUC tool (CNI, 2024).
The input variables are as follows. The technical
variables of the electrolyzer were: specic electricity
Figure 1 – Ceramic factory in São Paulo State, Brazil (left) and evaluated study case (right)
Source: elaborated by the authors with data from Delta (2024).
the ceramics sector. In the factory, there are
around 10 production lines established to process
raw materials into ceramic products by using
natural in kilns and dryers.
consumption of 61.7 kWh/kg H₂, specic water
consumption of 16.92 l/kg, coproduction of 8
kg of O₂/kg H₂, and an annual electrolyzer stack
degradation rate of 1% (Khan et al., 2021). The
main economic variables are listed in Table 1.
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Table 1 – Key input variables for the economical-nancial modeling
Sources: elaborated by the authors with data from Khan et al. (2021) and Delta (2024).
The electrolyzer CAPEX (1,452 USD/kW) and
annual OPEX (5% of electrolyzer CAPEX) were
adapted from Khan et al. (2021). Besides the
electrolyzer CAPEX, 50% of CAPEX was added due
to importation, EPC (engineering, procurement,
and construction) activities, and contingencies.
The electrolyzer project was simulated over 20
years. The total investment (27 million BRL) was
allocated in the rst two years, with 80% in the
rst year. Besides the annual OPEX, the need for
membrane replacement in the electrolyzer (20% of
electrolyzer CAPEX) was considered after 75,000
hours of operation. The cost of water for the
electrolysis was assumed to be 0.6 BRL/m³. The
annual water demand of 5,600 m³ can be sourced
from the company’s water resources, representing
a small volume and low environmental impact
within the factory operations (Delta, 2024). The
electricity cost of 300 BRL/MWh was considered
appropriate to the factory’s circumstances. Figure
2 pictures the modeling scheme implemented to
build the cash ow.
For the incremental cash ow assessment,
the replaced natural gas was considered an
avoided cost (revenue), valued at 4.30 BRL/
Nm³. According to the reduction of natural gas
consumption (emission factor of 56.15 gCO₂eq/
MJ) (IPCC, 2014), revenues from carbon credits
were valued at 250 BRL/t CO₂eq.
Given the proximity of hydrogen production to its
nal use, the O₂ produced from electrolysis was
considered for oxygen-enhanced combustion
(OEC) purposes (CSN, 2020; Wu et al., 2010).
Therefore, through a thermodynamic analysis
focused on adiabatic ame temperature (Law,
2010), aiming at enriching the combustion air with
O₂ concentrations lower than 30% v/v, a technical
potential of saving 0.47 m³ of natural gas/m³ of O₂
produced by electrolysis was adopted (Castiñeiras-
Filho, et al., 2024). In this way, the appraisal of O₂
aggregates revenues through natural gas savings
and the generation of carbon credits.
After entering the input variables, the H2V-IEPUC
tool (CNI, 2024) reports many relevant outputs
inherent to the simulated incremental cash ow.
The main output variables are the net present value
(NPV), the internal rate of return (IRR), the levelized
cost of hydrogen (LCOH) and its break-down into
components, and the competitiveness price of
natural gas that equalizes the implementation of
the hydrogen project with the business as usual
case. Figure 2 pictures a scheme representing
how the tools gather the input variables and build
up the cash ows. For more details about the
modeling of the cash ow, a manual is provided
with the tool (CNI, 2024).
CAPEXelectrolyzer
O&M
Residual value
CAPEX allocation
Natural gas cost
Carbon credits
7,263 BRL/kW
5% a.a.
30% do CAPEXelectrolyzer
2 years, with 80% in the 1st year
4.30 BRL/Nm3
250 BRL/t CO2
Other investments
Membrane replacement
Time horizon
Electricity cost
Water cost
50% of CAPEXelectrolyzer
20% of CAPEXelectrolyzer
20 years
300 BRL/MWh
0.6 BRL/m3
86
Figure 2 – Simplied scheme for estimating revenues and expenses in the modeling
Project expenses
Project revenues
Source: elaborated by the authors.
According to the methodology outlined above, a
technical and economic analysis was conducted
for two scenarios: a base (conservative) scenario
that ignores the potential value of O₂; and a
promising scenario that considers O₂ appreciation.
It is important to highlight that the latter scenario
disregards costs related to O₂ processing and
conditioning from electrolysis, as well as other
The cash ow and accumulated cash ow of the
base and promising scenarios are presented in
Figure 3. The base scenario demonstrates the
economic unfeasibility of the project, based on the
economic assumptions outlined in Table 1. A major
issue was that the annual costs (O&M, electricity,
etc.) consistently exceeded the revenues (natural
gas avoided cost and carbon credits) associated
with the partial substitution of natural gas by green
H₂. Notably, in year 11, the need to replace the
electrolyzer membrane after 75,000 hours of
operation showed up as a relevant cost, further
impacting the economic viability of the project.
costs associated with equipment and infrastructure
adaptations needed for OEC implementation. In
addition to the deterministic results for the context
presented in this methodology, a sensitivity
analysis of the NPV was performed concerning
the most impactful variables: natural gas cost,
electricity cost, and electrolyzer CAPEX.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Analysis of Incremental Cash Flow for the Base and Promising Scenarios
Therefore, the base scenario is unfeasible, as it
resulted in a negative NPV of -50 million BRL and
a strictly decreasing cash ow.
On the other hand, the promising scenario
demonstrated that the ability to valorize the O₂
produced from electrolysis enables the project’s
accumulated cash ow to grow, reecting the
generation of revenues greater than the operational
costs. It is noteworthy that the use of O₂ to displace
0.47 m³ of gas/m³ of O₂, with a natural gas cost of
4.30 BRL/m³, generates a value of approximately
2.021 BRL/m³ of O₂. In addition to this revenue
87
Figure 3 – Cash ow overview for the base scenario (above) and the promising scenario (below)
Source: elaborated by the authors.
Figure 4 demonstrates the breakdown of the
Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) in the evaluated
scenarios, as well as the cost of the fossil fuel above
which the use of hydrogen becomes competitive.
The base scenario resulted in an LCOH of 5.56
USD/kg of H2. The main components were the
cost of electricity (3.85 USD/kg, 64% of costs)
and the CAPEX of the electrolyzer (1.47 USD/
kg, 24.5% of costs). Therefore, reducing these
costs is relevant to make the electrolysis projects
viable and minimize the cost of the hydrogen
produced. Among the cost reducers, the carbon
3.2. Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) structure in the scenarios
from fuel savings, an additional CO₂ emission
reduction of 0.972 kgCO₂/m³ O₂ valued at 250
BRL/t CO₂ results in an extra revenue of 0.243
BRL/m³ of O₂. This potential valuation highlights
the importance of conducting R&D to explore the
utilization of O₂ in industrial processes or even to
seek its commercialization with third parties.
Finally, although Figure 3 shows that the scenario
appraising O₂ seems to have a favorable cash
ow, its NPV was equal to -0.822 million BRL and
the IRR was 4.7. From an objective perspective,
even the valorization of O₂ is not sucient to
approve the implementation of the electrolysis
project; however, the feasibility was very close
with regard to the discount rate of 5%. This result
demonstrates that access to low-interest nancing
options, crucial for stimulating decarbonization
projects, could contribute to the adoption of H₂ in
the ceramics sector.
credits contribute to a reduction of 0.34 USD/
kg of H2 produced. Additionally, for the sake of
the economic competitiveness of H2, natural gas
would need to cost 8.55 BRL/m3 in the base
scenario, nearly double the cost adopted (4.30
BRL/m3), demonstrating the unfeasibility of the
project.
88
Figure 4 – LCOH for the base scenario (on the left) and promising scenario (right), and
competitiveness cost of the fossil source.
Source: elaborated by the authors with the tool in CNI (2024)
In the promising case, the O2 contributed to a
reduction of 2.43 USD/kg in the LCOH, in addition
to increasing the carbon credit revenue to a total
of 0.63 USD/kg of H2. Thus, the LCOH in the
promising case reached 2.84 USD/kg, proposing
a competitiveness value for the fossil fuel of 4.34
BRL/m3. As assessed in the previous section,
where the natural gas price was established at
4.30 BRL/m3, the substitution project is very close
to being viable. Therefore, a structural increase
As observed in the LCOH components, the relevant
costs are: the cost of the fossil fuel, the electricity
cost, and the electrolyzer CAPEX. Figures 5 and
6 show the NPV sensitivity to variations in these
parameters for the base and promising scenarios,
respectively.
in the price of natural gas over the project’s time
horizon, for example, can turn the NPV positive,
assuming that the other assumptions in Table 1
remain constant.
3.3. Analysis of the sensitivity of the NPV to relevant economic variables
89
Figure 5 – Sensitivity analysis of NPV in the base scenario (neglecting O2)
Figure 6 – Sensitivity analysis of NPV in the promising scenario (appraising O2)
Source: elaborated by the authors with the tool in CNI (2024)
Source: elaborated by the authors with the tool in CNI (2024)
Note: Other parameters are constant as in Table 1. Values in green highlight scenarios where the
NPV is greater than zero.
Note: Other parameters are constant as in Table 1. Values in green highlight scenarios where the
NPV is greater than zero.
90
The base scenario shows that only with an
electricity cost between 60 and 120 BRL/MWh
would be possible to make the project viable,
given the reference price for natural gas of 4.30
BRL/m³. If the cost of natural gas increases by
50%, an electricity cost as low as 120 BRL/
MWh would be necessary to achieve economic
feasibility, for example. Regarding the electrolyzer
CAPEX, a 40% cost reduction (i.e., 4,358 BRL/
kW) would only make the project viable for natural
gas prices as high as 7.74 BRL/m³.
In the promising scenario, the contexts that
make the decarbonization project viable are
more diverse. An electricity cost of around 180
BRL/MWh would already make the project viable
even if the cost of natural gas was reduced by
20%, to competitive levels as low as 3.44 BRL/
m³. Regarding the electrolyzer CAPEX, a 40%
reduction of it would also favor the viability of the
project.
Thus, the sensitivity analyses highlight that
the accessibility of the ceramics industry to
low electricity costs is essential for the rational
introduction of green H2 into its energy matrix.
In the Brazilian context, the industry can invest
in distributed or self-generation projects with
renewable energy, which may allow access
to more competitive electricity costs. This
alternative benets either the electrolysis project
or other industrial operations, besides ensuring a
renewable energy backing for the H2 produced
and the electricity matrix of the factory. In addition
to this route, the factory can seek negotiations in
the free energy market so as to achieve electricity
costs in accordance with the scope of producing
H2 for decarbonization purposes.
With a lesser impact, the electrolyzer cost is also
relevant. Therefore, it is emphasized that the sector
can seek nancing sources for capital goods
to mitigate the CAPEX burden, based on the
decarbonization goal pursued by both industrial
agents and government bodies. Proper project
structuring for electrolysis, with the support of
existing credit lines, may be a more appropriate
short-term alternative, rather than waiting for the
eect of economies of scale over electrolysis
technology.
Based on the results above, the sensitivity
analysis of the NPV with the costs of natural gas
and electricity was reproduced for the base and
promising scenarios, considering an electricity
cost of 160 BRL/MWh and a 50% reduction in
the electrolyzer CAPEX (3,632 BRL/kW) as a new
reference level. It is important to note that these
references are supported by the perspectives of
the excess supply of renewable electricity in Brazil
(Brasil Energia, 2024) and current electrolyzer cost
levels (BloombergNEF, 2024).
Figure 7 shows the results of this analysis,
demonstrating that the reduction in these two
variables favors the project’s viability. In the new
reference case, a positive NPV of 1.0 million
BRL was found for the base scenario, without
considering the value of O2. In the context of an
increase in the cost of natural gas, the project
remains viable. In the promising scenario, which
takes into account the use of O2, the NPV of the
new reference is 50 million BRL. Furthermore, the
project remains viable even with highly competitive
natural gas prices, as low as R$ 0.86/m3.
Finally, the evaluated scenario supports the
result regarding the importance of low electricity
costs and electrolyzer CAPEX. In particular,
the consideration of the value of O2 presents a
relevant potential to mitigate the cost of hydrogen
production.
91
The case study conducted with a ceramics
industry company demonstrates the potential for
hydrogen production at costs between 2.84 and
5.56 USD/kg H2. The modeled incremental cash
ows were unattractive and misaligned (NPV lesser
than 0) with the technical-economic risk in the
current context established with the company. By
breaking down the LCOH, the main contributors
identied in this metric composition were the
CAPEX, electricity cost, and O2 valuation. In sum,
the hydrogen production project for partial natural
gas replacement is only viable if the potential value
of the oxygen (O2) co-produced in electrolysis
is fully exploited, which can be achieved
through oxygen-enriched combustion (OEC) or
commercialization with third parties. Besides, the
sector must be able to value avoided emissions
at 250 BRL/t CO2. However, since the analysis
does not account for O2 processing costs and
equipment adaptation, it remains essential to seek
Figure 7 – Sensitivity analysis for the base scenario (top) and promising scenario (bottom) under
the new reference
Source: elaborated by the authors with the tool in CNI (2024)
Note: the new references are R$160/MWh for electricity cost and R$3,632/kW for the
electrolyzer CAPEX. Other parameters are constant as in Table 1. Values in green highlight that
the scenario results in a positive NPV.
4. CONCLUSION
electricity contracts at more competitive costs or
to pursue well-structured distributed generation
or self-production projects with renewable
sources to facilitate the feasibility of the project
in the long term. As indicated by the sensitivity
analysis, combining incentives for the electrolyzer
investments (halving the CAPEX) with oxygen
appraisal can enable the decarbonization project
with electricity prices as high as 288 BRL/MWh.
Additionally, access to low-cost credit lines could
be provided to the sector as a way to achieve
decarbonization goals for the industry. Overall, the
ceramic industry company can invest in the green
hydrogen project with reasonability and consider
it an eective decarbonization strategy if one of
the tracked technical-economic contexts in the
sensitivity analysis can be fullled.
It is further emphasized that the results obtained
from the case study with the ceramics industry
provide both quantication and an understanding
of the potential value for other industrial subsectors
regarding the potential for green hydrogen to
enter their energy matrices, without overlooking
the economic aspects within the energy transition
agenda. The critical role of capital costs associated
with electrolysis technology and electricity in
supporting the process viability is highlighted, as
well as the importance of valuing O2 recovery
in cases where the hydrogen produced by
electrolysis is close to its end-use, as shown in
the breakdown of the LCOH. Future studies in
this area can be expanded to other industrial
sectors and applications involving hydrogen or
derivative products, in order to explore technical
and economic viability scenarios and guide public
policies towards the development of nancing
programs or tax exemptions for decarbonization
projects.
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